BACKGROUND OF ANDRAGOGY

PREFACE

            Andragogy has recieved mixed reviews in the past. Some have analyzed it from a positive perspective. Some have analyzed it from a negative perspective, and some have ignored it altogether. Most of the discussions have limited their observations to how Malcolm S. Knowles addressed andragogy. There has been an inadequate investiation of the foundation and background of andragogy from a world perspective. This research presents 240 major works published in English from national and international sources on andragogy that may help provide a clear and understandable international foundation for the linkage between the research, theory, and practice of andragogy. Six themes have emerged that provide a foundation for the linkage: The evolution of the term; historical antecedents shaping the concept; comparison of American and European understandings; popularizing and sustaining the American and world-wide concept; practical applications; and theory, research, and defmition. This is the yearly update [2008] ofthis research.

            Andragogy has been used by some as a code word for identifying the education and learning of adults. For others, it has been used to designate different strategies and methods that are used in helping adults learn. Still others use the term to suggest a theory that guides the scope of both research and practice on how adults learn, how they need to be taught, and elements to be considered when adults learn in various situations and contexts. Yet some still think of andragogy as a set of mechanical tools and techniques for teaching adults. For another group andragogy implies a scientific discipline that examines dimensions and processes of anything that would bring people to their full degree of humaneness. Nadler (1989) stated that Human Resource Development (HRD) is based in learning, and every HRD practitioner should have an understanding of the theories of Adult Learning. There is a broad spectrum reflected in the practice of andragogy, and the extensive literature publication over a long period of time on andragogy (some of which will be introduced and discussed in this paper), opens the door for the theoretical framework of this study to be focused on andragogy.

DISCUSSION

            Although andragogy became popularized in the 1970's and 1980's in the USA through the work of Malcolm Knowles and others, its original introduction into the USA was in 1926 by E. C. Lindeman, and again in 1927 by Lindeman and M. L. Anderson.

However, the term was first authored by Alexander Kapp (1833) nearly a century earlier in a German publication. Previous to and since the introduction of andragogy into the USA, extensive English language published literature has addressed and critiqued various aspects of its conceptual meaning and use. However, much of what has been published focuses only on its popularized use, reflecting either a wholesale support of Knowles' version of andragogy and the attendant excitement it generates, or a fairly straightforward debunking and dismissal for the reason of what some call Knowles' unscientific approach.

            On the one hand, there are numerous instances and variations where adult educators tended to strongly favor Knowles' version of andragogy, by using a practical approach when facilitating adults learning within their own setting and context.

Kabuga (1977) advocated using highly participative teaching/learning techniques with children as well as adults in his native Africa, despite the fact that he has not tested those andragogical techniques there. Eitington (1984, 1989, 1996) promoted pro-active engagement of adult learners in most every situation throughout a book containing twenty-one chapters, six hundred pages, and one hundred usable handouts.

Hoffman (1980) emphasized the differences between children and grown-ups (adults), with "schooling" being for children and "learning" being for adults. He affirmed his successful use of active learning techniques in working with more than 600,000 adult participants.

 Baden (1998) developed and outlined twenty-seven different themes with accompanying interactive techniques that he perceives as being extremely useful in the process of helping association executives become more effective in fulfilling their responsibilities.

Zemke and Zemke (1980, 1996) selected at least thirty ideas/concepts/techniques that they think we know for sure about adult learning. They asserted that if it is our job to train adults whether they want to be trained or not these ideas can give insight and practical help toward accomplishing that job.

The Nebraska Institute for the Study of Literacy (no date given) summarized Brookfield (1986), that in Andragogy, facilitating learning is a transactional encounter in which learner desires and educator priorities will inevitably interact with and influence each other.

Henschke (1995) focused on describing a dozen different episodes with groups in various settings, where he applied his understanding and adaptation of Knowles' theory ofandragogy, and then detailed some of the results he considered successful in using that approach with the participants. This list could go on, but these illustrate strong support for Knowles' version of andragogy.

            On the other hand, there are numerous instances and variations where adult educators tended to dismiss Knowles' version of andragogy as being quite inadequate, unscientific, not well researched, being misleading to adult educators, and lacking in understanding of the concept.

Hartree (1984) asserted that if viewed from the psychological standpoint, Knowles' theory of andragogy fails to make good its claims to stand as unified theory because it lacks coherent discussion of the different dimensions of learning; and, equally, if viewed as philosophy, it falls short because it does not incorporate an epistemology an explanation for a way of knowing what one knows.

 Davenport (1987) presented a case for questioning the theoretical and practical efficacy of Knowles' theory of andragogy, growing out of his research and perspective, perhaps adding to the confusion with his paradoxical definitions of andragogy and pedagogy and with his assumptions that lack clarity and solid empirical support. Davenport finished with his argument that some adult educators strongly urge that adult education would simply be better off to drop the word from its lexicon.

 Jarvis (1984) wrote that the theory of andragogy has moved into the status of an established doctrine in adult education, but without being grounded in sufficient empirical research to justify its dominant position.

While Brookfield (1986) claimed that with andragogy (most probably as exemplified by Knowles) not being a proven theory, adult educators should be hesitant to adopt it as a badge of identity or calling themselves andragogues with the attendant belief that it represents a professionally accurate summary of the unique characteristics of adult education practice.

Pratt's (1987, 1993) stance appeared to be that andragogy is a relational construct, and that the further debate of it presents tension between freedom and authority, between human agency and social structures, thus seeming to stall the consideration of the usefulness of Knowles' conception of andragogy.

 Further, Ferro (1997) charged that the use and meaning of the term, andragogy, has spawned a debate on the term and fostered the creation of additional unclear terms intended to define aspects of adult education; but he made a plea for adult educators instead to concentrate on what they know best, the planning and delivery of learning opportunities for adults.

Hanson (1996) called for adult educators not to search for a separate theory of adult learning [andragogy], but rather that we remove many of the unsubstantiated assumptions based on almost utopian beliefs about the education and training of adults linked to uncontextualized views of learning and empowerment.

This list could also go on, but these expressions serve to illustrate opposition to Knowles' version of andragogy. So why the varying views?

The weakness of the above picture is that both sides seem to stop short in their discussion and understanding of andragogy. The focus is mainly on the pros and cons of Malcolm Knowles' treatment and interpretation of the concept.

 Thus, our interest in researching the concept of andragogy takes us past the experience (albeit, a positive experience) of Knowles' presentation of it. We are interested in investigating all the literature we could find and had time to analyze.

 Of course, this is an ongoing search. In our quest, we found that most of the published material on andragogy that reaches beyond these limitations is largely untapped and not understood, but nevertheless provides a broader and deeper international foundation of the concept and its application to the theory, research, and practice of HRD and Adult Education within adult learning.

It has been suggested by Savicevic (1999) that andragogy is defined as a scientific discipline, which deals with problems relating to HRD and Adult Education and learning in all of its manifestations and expressions, whether formal or informal, organized or selfguided, with its scope of research covering the greater part of a person's life.

It is linked with advancing culture and performing: professional roles and tasks, family responsibilities, social or community functions, and leisure time use. All of these areas are part of the working domain of the practice of HRD and Adult Education.

 It could be said that a clear connection is established from the research to practice of andragogy, with andragogy being the art and science of helping adults to learn and the study of HRD and Adult Education theory, processes, and technology relating to that end.

CONCLUSION

Andragogy is an interesting theory with many applications in the past, present and future. It first made a real impact and have many implications for instruction today. Only the future will tell what is in store for andragogy.

REFERENCE

Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as learners: Increasing participation and facilitating learning. San Francisco: Jossey-bass.

Knowles, M.S. & Associates. (1984). Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Learning (1st ed.). San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Van Gent, B. (1996). Andragogy. In A.C. Tuijnman (Ed.).,International Encyclopedia of Adult Education and Training. (pp.114-116). Tarrytown, New York: Elsevier Science, Inc.

Wilson, A.L., & Hayes, E.R. (2000). Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.